Abstract
Understanding litter and littering is not as straightforward as one may assume, as it is a complex social-environmental issue. Nuances relate to a wide range of factors (e.g., litter movements, litter types, mitigations), but despite complexities, research and policy has historically approached the issue through behavioural intervention; reduce litter by addressing littering. Limited research efforts focus on holistically understanding physical properties of litter, material composition and regional variation. This thesis investigates these intricacies, exploring and testing the subtleties of litter and littering dynamics with focus on urban, British settings. In collaboration with the Hubbub Foundation UK, and local governments in London, Manchester, Birmingham and Brighton, interdisciplinary methods from Human and Physical Geography were used to reveal insights that reframe litter and littering.A quantitative sampling of litter typology in the study sites revealed that cigarette litter was pervasive, accounting for 78% of all surveyed items. Of non- cigarette litter, a proportional analysis identified chewing gum as most prevalent, alongside till receipts (8%); whilst hot-topic litter items such as plastic bottles (2.7%), coffee cups (1.5%) and plastic bags (0.7%) contributed marginally to the sample. Additionally, when considering litter by associated activities, a grouped analysis revealed 30% of non-cigarette litter was attributed to eating. Behavioural observations found 63% of non-cigarette littering is unintentional, half of which is characterised by individuals placing rubbish on bin-like structures or stacking it neatly next to full bins, designated as Polite Littering. Mapping GPS tagged litter indicated that there are many influences that allow litter to travel in a terrestrial environment. The study found that litter can enter a site through a range of direct and indirect human-mediated pathways, providing proof of concept to discussions on inland- based contributions to marine plastics. Following on, material composition of commonly littered items was evaluated to develop the Litter Impact Index. The index quantified item-specific levels of impact and provided a robust tool for establishing ranges of impacts. Finally, repurposing litter typology, associated activities and impact values, a comparative analysis identified connections between litter and place. Unexpectedly, variations in litter abundance exist across each of the case- study cities, although overall composition remained somewhat similar.
Considering insights gained within this thesis, it is proposed that a series of structural adjustments that reduce the potential for items to become litter can have greater impact than wide-scale public campaigns. These include solutions like smart bin design and intuitive cleansing schedules that consider spatial, meteorological, and temporal variability. Additionally, reflecting on policy, particularly the development of the Extended Producer Responsibility for Packaging, the implementation of the Litter Impact Index is proposed as a novel framework to influence packaging design standards and target reduced circulation of the most abundant and detrimental items. The results of these studies highlight that the blight of litter is highly misunderstood, and sheds new light on litter sources, dispersal, transfer dynamics and associated impacts – establishing new avenues for evidence- led, simple, and sustainable methods to mitigation.
| Date of Award | 1 Jan 2023 |
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| Original language | English |
| Awarding Institution |
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| Supervisor | Ragnar Lofstedt (Supervisor) & Michael Chadwick (Supervisor) |